Elemér Illyés : National Minorities in Romania

2. Excellent and detailed data are provided in Theodor Veiter, Nationalitätenkonflikt und Volksgruppenrecht im 20. Jahrhundert, vol. I: Entwicklungen, Rechtsprobleme, Schlussfolgerungen, (Vienna: 1977).

3. See below for a fuller discussion of the Resolutions of Alba Iulia and the Paris Minorities Treaty.

4. Ciucea is a village in western Transylvania.

5. László Fritz, "Az erdélyi magyar anyanyelvü zsidóság" [The Hungarian-speaking Transylvanian Jewry], in Sulyok-Fritz eds., Erdélyi Magyar Évkönyv 1918-1929 [Transylvanian-Hungarian Yearbook], vol. I, (Cluj: 1930), pp. 109-117.

6. See, among others, C.A. Macartney and A.W. Palmer, Independent Eastern Europe, (London: 1932); Arnold Werner, "Rumäniens Volksgruppenpolitik von den Karlsburger Beschlüssen 1918 bis zur Gegenwart," in Monatshefte für Auswärtige Politik, vol. 5, 1938, p. 1070; Dokumentation der Vertreibung der Deutschen aus Ost-Mitteleuropa, vol. III, Das Schicksal der Deutschen in Rumänien, ed. by the Bundesministerium für Vertriebene, Flüchtlinge und Kriegsgeschädigte, (Berlin: 1957), specially pp. 20 E-27 E.

7. The national minorities in Romania had contacts with the Interparliamentary Union, the Nationality League, the International Union of the Association for the League of Nations, the International Association of Minority Newspapermen, and various church and religious movements. They could direct their appeals to and through these organizations to publicize their complaints.

8. Imre Mikó, Huszonkét év [Twenty-Two Years], (Budapest: 1941), p. 303. In neutralizing the complaints of its national minorities to the League of Nations Romania counted from the very beginning on the support of France. Thus, for example, the French Department of the League of Nations remarked in a note written for the Political Department of the Quai d'Orsay on April 6, 1923, that "although the Hungarian complaint is justified, the Romanians are our friends." (Archives du Ministère des Affaires Étrangères Paris, série Z, Roumanie, t.43, p. 8l. Quoted in H. Bogdan, Le problème des minorités nationales dans les "États-Successeurs" de l'Autriche Hongrie, (Louvain: 1976), p. 11. See also Pablo de Azcarate y Florez, League of Nations and National Minorities, (Washington, D.C.: 1945); Arthur Balogh, "Die Autonomie in Religions- und Schulfragen der széklerischen und sächsischen Gemeinschaften in Siebenbürgen", in Nation und Staat, 5/1931-1932, pp. 531-542.
The League of Nations' system for the protection of minorities ceased to function for all practical purposes with the outbreak of the Second World War and formally came to an end with the signing of the 1947 peace treaties. Further literature on the nationality subject: C.A. Macartney, National States and National Minorities, (London: 1934); Arthur Balogh, Der internationale Schutz der Minderheiten, (Munich: 1928); Felix Ermacora, "Innerstaatliche, regionale und universelle Struktur eines Volksgruppenrechtes," in Th. Veiter, ed., System eines internationalen Volksgruppenrechts, II part, (Vienna-Stuttgart: 1972); Hugo Wintgens, Der völkerrechtliche Schutz der nationalen, sprachlichen und religiösen Minderheiten, (Stuttgart: 1930).

9. The essay of Otto Folberth in the Hungarian-language literary journal, Erdélyi Helikon (Cluj: 1928), p. 66. The German-language literary journal, Klingsor (Brasov/Kronstadt) advocated a spiritual reconciliation between the three Transylvanian nations -- the Romanians, Saxons, and Hungarians. See, for example, Heinrich Zillich, "Siebenbürgen und der Curentul," Klingsor, August 1928, vol., 5, pp. 314-316; Egon Hajek, "Von siebenbürgischen Menschen," Klingsor, vol. 3, 1926, pp. 137-139.

10. An attempt to represent Transylvanism, was the foundation of the Romanian journal Cultura, in Cluj, January 1924, published in four languages -- Romanian, Hungarian, German and French.

11. Quoted in Dokumentation der Vertreibung der Deutschen aus Ost-Mitteleuropa, op. cit., p. 32E.

12. Ellenzék [Opposition] Cluj, January 10, 1932.

13. The Iron Guard was an extreme Romanian nationalist and fascist terrorist organization. It was founded in 1927 as the "Legion of the Archangel Michael," and the name "Iron Guard" was adopted in 1930. It was abolished in 1935 but reconstituted later as the "All for the Fatherland" organization. This strongly anti-minority and particularly anti-Semitic organization came to power in 1940. After their open rebellion in January 1941, General Antonescu liquidated them; their leaders were executed. See also M. Fatu and I. Spalatelu, Garda de fier, organizatie terorista de tip fascist [The Iron Guard, a Fascist Terror Organization], (Bucharest: 1971); Corneliu Zelca Codreanu, Eiserne Garde, (Berlin: 1939); Pentru legionari [For Legionaries], (Bucharest: 1940). A valuable source of information on Romanian fascism is Eugen Weber, "Romania," in Hans Rogger and Eugen Weber, eds., The European Right. A Historical Profile. (Berkeley, Calif.: 1965), pp. 501-574.

14. "Vásárhely" is the short version of Marosvásárhely/Tirgu Mures.

15. Ernst Wagner, Quellen zur Geschichte der Siebenbürger Sachsen 1191-1975, (Cologne-Vienna: 1976), p. 259.

16. The decree of September 15, 1940. The term was abolished after the fall of the Iron Guard on February 15, 1941.

17. Monatshefte für Auswärtige Politik, vol. 7, no. 9 (September 1940), p. 706. Important data on German-Romanian relations are found in Andreas Hillgruber, Hitler, König Carol und Marschall Antonescu. Die deutsch-rumänischen Beziehungen 1938-1944, 2nd ed., (Wiesbaden: 1965).

18. Decree-Law No. 830/1940, "über die Konstituierung der Deutschen Volksgruppe in Rumänien," in Monitorul Oficial [Official Gazette], part I, no. 275/1940, November 21, 1940, p. 6530.

19. Turnu Severin is a Romanian town on the Danube.

20. See Petru Groza, L'École du pouvoir, (Paris: 1947), p. 202 and In the Darkness of Prison, p. 291; see also C.A. Macartney, October Fifteenth, (Edinburgh: 1957), vol. II, p. 351; Amelia C. Leiss -- R. Dennet, European Peace Treaties after World War II, (New York: 1954), p. 102.

21. The Craiova (Oltenia) Agreement, September 7, 1940.

22. A documented analysis on the Second Vienna Award by E. Wagner, op. cit., p. 295, note 14; see also C.A. Macartney, op. cit., vol. I, pp. 419-424.

23. General Census of Romania, April 6, 1941, Central Statistical Office, Bucharest, 1944, Table 1, p. ix.; "Rezultatele Recensamantului Maghiar 1941" ["The Results of the Hungarian Census"], in Comunicari Statistice [Statistical Publications], no. I, January 15, 1945, Table 18, pp. 14-15.

24. See S. Fischer-Galati, ed., Romania, (New York: 1956), p. 121.

25. Important information of these points may be found in A.D. Finkelstein, Fénysugár a rémület éjszakájában [A Ray of Light in the Night of Horrors], (Tel-Aviv: 1958).

26. Finkelstein, op cit., p. 15.

27. Eduard Benes, President of Czechoslovakia, represented the exiled Czechoslovak government in London from 1941 onward; the émigré politicians from Central Europe gathered around his English-language journal, Central European Observer.

28. From the report to the Hungarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and documentation relating to Transylvania in the Archives of Department II (Minorities) of the Prime Minister's Office, 15008/1944 and the Archives of the Party History Institute Attached to the Central Committee of the Hungarian Socialist Workers, Party, R 25046/1944, 17060/1944.

29. A.C. Leiss-R. Dennet, European Peace Treaties after World War II, pp. 101-102., 299; A. Cretzianu, "Rumanian Armistice Negotiations," in Journal of Central European Affairs, (Boulder, Colorado), October 1951, pp. 243-258.

30. A. Cretzianu, Captive Rumania, (New York: 1956), pp. 18-20.

31. The Transylvanian Party was founded in May 1941 by a group of Transylvanian deputies. It supported the Hungarian government of the time.

32. Alba Iulia is a town in central Transylvania. Its Hungarian name is Gyulafehérvár; and its old German name Weissenburg, from 1715 Karlsburg.

33. Great Britain, France, Russia, Belgium, and Serbia; later also Italy, the USA, and Japan. Treaties for the protection of the minorities were concluded with Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and Greece. See Theodor Grentrup, Das Deutschtum an der mittleren Donau in Rumänien und Jugoslawien, (Münster: 1930), pp. 3-13.; Erwin Viefhaus, Die Minderheitenfrage und die Entstehung der Minderheitenschutzverträge auf der Pariser Friedenskonferenz 1919. Eine Studie zur Geschichte des Nationalitätenproblems im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, (Marburg: 1960).

34. See F. Ermacora, "Über den Minderheitenschutz in den Friedensverträgen der Donaustaaten nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg", in Der Donauraum, vol. 11, nos. 1-2, 1966, p. 67.

35. Valuable data are provided in David Hunter-Miller, My Diary at the Peace Conference of Paris, (New York: 1924-1926), vol. XIII, New States, (Minorities).

36. Gazeta Oficiala (Official Gazette), no. 3, December 31, 1918. The original text of the Alba Iulia Resolutions is contained in Ioan Clopotel, Revolutia din 1918 si unirea Ardealului cu Romania [The 1918 Revolution and Transylvania's Union with Romania], (Cluj: 1936), pp. 121-123; the German text in E. Wagner, Quellen zur Geschichte der Siebenbürger Sachsen, op. cit. p. 264.

37. The Romanian national minorities are referred to as the "coinhabiting peoples" (popoarele conlocuitoare) in the Alba Iulia Resolutions; the present official terminology also refers to "coinhabiting nationalities" (nationalitatile conlocuitoare).

38. The proclamation of protest issued by the Hungarian-Székler National Council on December 18, 1918, and the self-determining national assembly of the Transylvanian Hungarians on December 22. See Imre Mikó, op cit., p. 11.

39. A documented analysis by Walter König "Haben die Siebenbürger Sachsen und die Banater Schwaben 1918/1919 bedingungslos dem Anschluss an Rumänien zugestimmt?". in Zeitschrift für Siebenbürgische Landeskunde, vol. 2/73, no. 1/79, pp. 101-110. See also C.A. Macartney and A.W. Palmer, Independent Eastern Europe, op. cit., note 2.

40. See, among others, the criticism of the report by M. Constantinescu, L. Bányai, V. Curticapeanu, and C. Göllner, Romanian historians, by Soviet Academician V.M. Turok, among the contributions in "Zur nationalen Frage in Österreich-Ungarn 1900-1918," in Die nationale Frage in der Österreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie 1900-1918, (Budapest: 1966), pp. 307-309. The Romanian daily Universul, published in Bucharest, contained a revealing article on October 8, 1930, according to which Alexandru Vaida-Voevod, a well-known Romanian politician in those days, had published a secret pamphlet in Vienna in 1922 under the title "Ardealul Ardelenilor" [Transylvania Belongs to the Transylvanians], which stated, among other things, "The circumstances under which the Alba Iulia Resolutions came about clearly prove that the union of Transylvania with Romania was proclaimed only as the result of a certain amount of pressure." The content of the pamphlet is published in German in Herbert van Leisen, Das siebenbürgische Problem, (Geneva: 1943), pp. 101-102.

41. H. van Leisen, Das siebenbürgische Problem [The Transylvanian Question], pp. 104-105.

42. Valuable data are provided in H. Seton-Watson, op. cit. p. 229, note 1. The fulfillment of a secret agreement, which promised Romania a large part of the Hungarian Plain, almost as far as Szeged and Debrecen, was hindered by the treaty concluded in the meantime between Bucharest and the Central Powers.

43. See among others Theodor Grentrup, Das Deutschtum an der mittleren Donau in Rumänien und Jugoslawien, op. cit., p. 16; Henry Bogdan, Le problème des minoritiés nationales, op. cit., spec. pp. 12-14; Dokumentation der Vertreibung der Deutschen, op. cit., p. 27 E.

44. Romul Boila, Organizatia de stat [The Organization of the State], (Cluj: 1929), p. 135; Radu Budisteanu, Un capitol nou in dreptul international public si privat: Minoritatile etnice [A New Chapter in International Public and Civil Law: the Ethnic Minorities], (Bucharest: 1928), p. 49; Gheorghe Sofronie, "Actul dela Alba Iulia si valoarea sa internationala" [The Act of Alba Iulia and its International Value], Transilvania, LXXIV, 1943, pp. 866-875.

45. See Silviu Dragomir, La Transylvanie roumaine et ses minorités ethniques, (Bucharest: 1934), p. 260.

46. Concerning the original text of the Paris Minorities Treaty, see in Protection des minorités de langue, de race et de religion par Société des Nations. Recueil des stipulations, (Geneva: 1927).

47. W. König, op. cit., p. 107, note 39. See further Zsombor Szász, The Minorities in Roumanian Transylvania, (London: 1927), p. 22 et seq., 319 et seq.; Th. Grentrup, Das Deutschtum, op. cit., p. 15.

48. Noua Constitutie a Romaniei, 1923. Prelegeri organizate de Institutul Social Roman [Romania's New Constitution, 1923. Lectures Organized by the Romanian Social Institute], (Bucharest: n.d.), pp. 27-28.

49. The Hungarian representative of the Entente remarked: "l have no doubt whatsoever that the Romanian authorities, with or without the knowledge of the Bucharest government, use all available means to oppress the Hungarians living in the country." (Archives du Ministère des Affaires Étrangères Paris, série Z, Roumanie, t. 41, Tg du 6 novembre 1919, Sir George Clerk au Conseil Supreme Paris). Quoted in H. Bogdan, op. cit., p. 12, note 6.

50. The agrarian reform had already been planned in 1919, but it was carried out only from 1921 onward. The Decree-Law 3911 of September 10, 1919, was replaced by the law of July 30, 1921 (Monitorul Oficial, no. 82, July 30, 1921).

51. On the Romanian agrarian reform and its political aspects, see C.A. Macartney, Hungary and Her Successors. The Treaty of Trianon and its Consequences 1919-1937. (London, New York, Toronto: 1937), pp. 316-320; I.L. Evans, The Agrarian Revolution in Rumania, (Oxford: 1930); D. Mitrany, The Land and the Peasant in Roumania, (Cambridge: 1924); E. Wagner, Historisch-statistisches Ortsnamenbuch für Siebenbürgen, (Cologne: 1977), p.99.

52. Miklós Endes, Erdély három nemzete és négy vallása autonómiájának története [The History of the Autonomy of the Three Nations and Four Religions of Transylvania], (Budapest: 1935), p. 487.

53. See Archives du Ministère des Affaires Étrangères Hongrie, l3/pol. du 31 décembre 1921 à Haut Commissaire de France Budapest. Quoted in H. Bogdan, op. cit., p. 14, note 6.

54. Ibid., serie Z., Roumanie t. 43, Rapport Consul de France à Cluj d'Affaires Étrangères, Paris, 3 février 1923.

55. P. de Azcarate, La Société des Nations et la protection des minorités, (Geneva: 1969), pp. 35-44. Quoted in Ibid.

56. See Lajos Jordáky, Az erdélyi társadalom szerkezete [The Structure of the Transylvanian Society], (Kolozsvár: 1946), pp. 5-6.

57. Monitorul Oficial, no. 282, March 29, 1923.

58. Archives du Ministère des Affaires Étrangères Paris, série Z, Roumanie, t. 41. Mémoire du 13 janvier 1920 de l'Église presbytérienne d'Angleterre adressé au Conseil Suprême; Ibid. t. 41, Lt. no. 102, Ministre de France Bucarest á Archives du Ministère des Affaires Étrangères, Paris, 12 septembre 1920. Quoted by H. Bogdan, op. cit., p. 12, note 6.

59. See a document of the Union Internationale des Associations pour la Société des Nations with the signature of Secretary General Th. Ruyssen, Archives de la Société des Nations 1481/58 075/R, 1630. Quoted by H. Bogdan, op. cit., p. 13, note 6.

60. Monitorul Oficial, no. 60, June 19, 1923.

61. For the text of the decree concerning the dismissal of railway employees, see Imre Mikó, Huszonkét év, p. 128.

62. See Pandectele Romane, XV, 1936, III, p. 50. According to the January 1936 report of the leader of the Transylvanian Saxons, Hans Otto Roth, more than 580 German civil servants were dismissed. The losses suffered by the Hungarians were considerably greater. (Quoted in C.A. Macartney, Hungary and Her Successors, p. 296.)

63. Imre Mikó, Huszonkét év, p. 148.

64. Legea pentru unificarea administrativa [The Law Concerning the Unification of Public Administration], Monitorul Oficial, no. 128, July 14, 1925.

65. One last attempt was made to restore local self-government on the basis of the new public administration law enacted in 1929. In February-March 1930, the first -- and the last -- village and county elections to self-governing bodies were held in Romania. In these, the national minorities gained representation in proportion to their numbers. However, the newly elected organs could not begin to function, since a change of government led to the final abolition even of the principle of local self-government.

66. See, E. Ammende, Die Nationalitäten in den Staaten Europas. Sammlung von Lageberichten. (Vienna, Leipzig: 1931: supplement Vienna; 1932), 415 et. seq.

67. H. Hartl, Das Schicksal des Deutschtums in Rumänien, (Würzburg: 1958), p. 57. According to the data provided by Hartl, at the end of the 1930's the Transylvanian Saxons had 135 credit cooperatives, 36 consumers, cooperatives, 2 wine-growers cooperatives, and other types of cooperatives as well. Following the foundation of the joint cooperative union of the Transylvanian Saxons and the Swabians of the Banat, the National Union of German Cooperatives in Romania (Landesverband der deutschen Genossenschaft in Rumänien), comprised 262 credit cooperatives, 167 purchasing and marketing cooperatives, 47 consumers, cooperatives, and 28 other types of cooperative.

68. The Transylvanian Hungarian Economic Federation (Erdélyi Magyar Gazdasági Egyesület), the Transylvanian Hungarian Banking Syndicate (Erdélyi Magyar Bankszindikátus), the Federation of Credit Cooperatives (Hitelszövetkezetek Szövetsége) and the Hangya Cooperative Center (Hangya Szövetkezetek Központja) were all sizeable economic organizations.

69. The law was to have been issued on June 7, 1937, but it was withdrawn on the protest of the national minorities. Quoted by E. Wagner, Quellen zur Geschichte der Siebenbürger Sachsen, p. 291.

70. See "Legea pentru pregatirea profesionala si exercitarea meseriilor" [The Law Concerning Vocational Training and the Practice of a Vocation], Monitorul Oficial, no. 99, April 30, 1936.

71. "Statistica impozitelor directe pe 1924" [The Statistics of Direct Taxes for the Year 1924]. Ministerul Finantelor, Directiunea Statisticei general al Finantelor [Ministry of Finance, The General Statistical Directorate of Finances], (Bucharest: 1926, 1927). "Lei" is the Romanian monetary unit.

72. Cernauti County in Bucovina, for example, where Jews and Germans lived in large numbers. Anuarul Statistic al Romaniei 1937-38 [Romanian Statistical Yearbook, 1937-1938], published by Institutul Central de Statistica [Central Office of Statistics], (Bucharest: 1939), pp. 260-261; "Statistica impozitelor directe pe anii 1925 si 1926" [Statistics on Direct Taxes, 1925-1926], by L. Fritz, in Magyar Kisebbség [Hungarian Minority], (Lugoj), June 26, 1928; Anuarul Statistic al Romaniei 1937-1938 [Romanian Statistical Yearbook 1937- 1938].

73. The Austrian "Joch" (yoke) is 0.575 hectares, or about 1.42 acres.

74. C.A. Macartney, Hungary and Her Successors, p. 319.

75. The Minority Statute contained three Decree-Laws: part I, in Monitorul Oficial no. 101, May 4, 1938; part II, in Monitorul Oficial no. 178, August 4, 1938; and part III. ibid.

76. Article 18. Monitorul Oficial, no. 178, Aug. 4, 1938.

77. Monitorul Oficial, no. 49, March 1, 1938.

78. See A. Cretzianu, Captive Rumania, p. 21.

79. See Fischer-Galati, ed., Romania, p. 64.

80. See Szakszervezet [Trade Union; Hungarian-language press organ published in Cluj], no. 128, March 1945; see also Monatshefte für Auswärtige Politik, (Berlin), vol. 11, 1944, p. 550.

81. For the text of the Romanian Armistice Agreement, see E.C. Ciurea, Le traité de paix avec la Roumanie du 10. février 1947, (Paris: 1954).

82. See Munkások és földmüvesek naptára [Calendar for Workers and Farmers], (Cluj: 1945), p. 136.

83. A. Cretzianu, Captive Rumania, p. 32.

84. Scanteia, (Bucharest), March 11, and 12, 1945; see also Keesing's Archiv der Gegenwart, vol. 15 (1945), pp. 135 D, 137 A, 138 B. Scinteia [The Spark], the chief journal of the RCP, named in honor of Lenin's Iskra, was founded in 1931 and resumed publication in 1944. The original spelling, "Scanteia," was changed to "Scinteia" as part of the program of "de- Russification."

85. See Roumania at the Peace Conference: Paris 1946 (Romanian Government Publication), Switzerland, 1946, pp. 35-41 and Annex 1, pp. 49-78.

86. See Ferenc Nagy, The Struggle behind the Iron Curtain, (New York: 1948), pp. 204, 209-210, 218-219.

87. S.D. Kertesz, Diplomacy in a Whirlpool. Hungary between Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia, (Notre Dame, Ind.: 1953), p. 181.

88. Source of information in A Szovjetunió története 1926-1945. Válogatott dokumentumok. [The History of the Soviet Union 1926-1945, Selected Documents], (Budapest: 1967).

89. S.D. Kertesz, Diplomacy in a Whirlpool, (Indiana: 1953), p. 182.

90. Ghita Ionescu, Communism in Rumania, 1944-1962, (London: 1964), p. 129; F. Nagy, The Struggle behind the Iron Curtain, p. 214.

91. The Paris Peace Conference was proceeded by a conference of the foreign ministers of the four great powers in May 1946, which discussed the conditions for the peace conference with the satellite states (Bulgaria, Finland, Hungary, Italy, and Romania) and made recommendations as well as pre-empting certain decisions for the peace conference.

92. C.L. Sulzberger, "Rumania Gets Rule in Transylvania," The New York Times, May 8, 1946, p. 1.

93. Report of the British Commissioner in Rumania, Le Rougetel, to Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden, on his visit to Cluj on July 19, 1945: FO 371, R 451/451/21, 6.1.1945. London, Foreign Office.

94. Its official name is not peace conference but the Paris Conference (Conférence de Paris 1946).

95. Paris Peace Conference 1946: Selected Documents, Department of State, Publication 2868, Conference Series 103. (Washington, D.C.: 1947).

96. Gyula Juhász, "Az üszkös pillanat. Magyar-angol titkos tárgyalások 1943-ban. II. rész." [The Smouldering Moment. Secret Anglo-Hungarian Negotiations in 1943. Part II], in Új Írás [New Writing], (Budapest), June 1977, pp. 54-80.

97. For the text of the Paris Peace Treaty, see World Peace Foundation, European Peace Treaties After World War II, 1954, pp. 298-321. For the German text of the Paris Peace Treaty see E. Menzel, Die Friedensverträge nach 1947 mit Italien, Ungarn, Bulgarien, Rumänien und Finnland, (Oberursel: 1948). The Peace Treaty with Romania see E.C. Ciurea, Le traité de paix avec la Roumanie du 10 février 1947, (Paris: 1954). By signing the peace treaty Romania de facto became one of the satellite states of the Soviet Union.

98. Ghita Ionescu, Communism in Rumania 1944-1962, p. 131.

99. Decree-Law No. 363/1947 on the Proclamation of the Romanian People's Republic, Monitorul Oficial, Part 1, no. 300, 1947.

100. Law No. 393.

101. See Siebenbürgisch-Deutsches Tageblatt [Transylvanian German Daily], (Hermannstadt), vol. 71, no. 201, September 1, 1944, quoted in Dokumentation der Vertreibung der Deutschen aus Ost-Mitteleuropa. p. 83 E.

102. Decree-Law No. 485/1944, October 8, concerning the abolition of Law No. 830/1940 on the institutionalization of the German ethnic group in Romania. Monitorul Oficial, part I, no. 233/1944.

103. Further literature on the deportation of the German population: Alfred Bohmann, Menschen und Grenzen. vol. 2: Bevölkerung und Nationalitäten in Südosteuropa. Rumänien, pp. 101-218, (Cologne: 1969), p. 189; Dokumentation der Vertreibung der Deutschen aus Ost-Mitteleuropa, vol. III, pp. 79 E, 80 E, and 85 E; Nicolas Spulber, The Economics of Communist Eastern Europe, (Cambridge, Mass.: 1957), p. 237; S. Fischer-Galati, ed., Romania, p. 38; Die deutschen Vertreibungsverluste. Bevölkerungsbilanz für die deutschen Vertreibungsgebiete 1939-1950. Edited by Statistisches Bundesamt. (Wiesbaden: 1958), Contribution W. Krallert, p. 482.

104. Hans Hartl, Das Schicksal des Deutschtums in Rumänien, p. 121.

105. Decree No. 826/1946, Monitorul Oficial, part I, no. 243/1946.

106. Dániel Csatári, Forgószélben. Magyar-román viszony 1940-1945, [In the Whirlwind. Hungarian-Romanian Relationship 1940-1945], (Budapest: 1968), p. 432.

107. Valuable information is provided in Titus Popovici, Strainul [The Alien], (Bucharest: 1972), pp. 438-444; P. Séqueil, Le dossier de la Transylvanie, (Paris: 1967), p. 120 Dániel Csatári, Forgószélben, p. 441. The so-called Maniu-Guard (named after Maniu's Peasant Party), consisted of approximately 10,000 men, armed by the Romanian Military High Command. They followed the Soviet and Romanian regular troops into the Hungarian- inhabited Transylvanian villages where, under the pretext of "restoring law and order," they massacred the defenseless population.

108. Left-wing movement consisting largely of workers and intellectuals, between the two world wars. It was abolished in 1944.

109. The New York Times, March 11, 1945.

110. From the text of the proclamation of the Tirgu Mures/Marosvásárhely meeting of the Hungarian People's Alliance, held on November 15-18, 1945, published in the December 2, 1945 issue of the Hungarian newspaper, Falvak Népe [The People of the Villages], (Cluj). The three-day conference summarized the grievances of the Hungarians in Romania in eleven points.

111. See A nemzetiségi politika három éve a demokratikus Romániában, [Three Years of Nationality Policy in Democratic Romania], (Bucharest: 1948), p. 26.

112. See Articles 17 and 22 of Part I of the Nationality Statute issued on February 6, 1945.

113. See the April 12, 1945 issue of the Hungarian-language periodical Népi Egység [The Unity of the People], published in Brasov.

114. Decree No. 847/1945. See the April 3, 1945 issue of Erdély [Transylvania], the journal of the Transylvanian Social Democratic Party, published in Kolozsvár.

115. See Magyar Nemzet [Hungarian Nation], (Budapest), July 29, 1945.

116. See Sándor Kelemen, Az erdélyi helyzet [The Transylvanian Situation], (Budapest: 1946).

117. Ghita Ionescu, Communism in Rumania, p. 184. T. Gilberg estimated the number of Jews who emigrated from Romania between 1947 and 1975 at 300,000 (Cf., T. Gilberg, Modernization in Rumania Since World War II, (New York: 1975), p. 267.

118. László Rajk, one-time member of the Hungarian Communist Party, Minister of Internal (1946-1948) and later of Foreign Affairs (1948-1949). He was a victim of the purges carried out by means of Moscow-instigated show-trials; in 1949 he was sentenced to death and executed on the basis of fabricated charges.

119. See T. Gilberg, Modernization in Rumania Since World War II, (New York: 1975), p. 211; a discussion of anti-Semitism in Romania can be found in Peter Meyer, et al., The Jews in the Soviet Satellites, (Syracuse: N.Y.: 1953), and H. Seton-Watson, Eastern Europe between the Wars 1918-1941. (Cambridge, England: 1945) pp. 288-296.

120. Detailed data are provided in E. Viefhaus, Die Minderheitenfrage und die Entstehung der Minderheitenschutzverträge auf der Pariser Friedenskonferenz 1919, op. cit.; see A.C. Leiss -- R. Dennet, European Peace Treaties After World War II, (New York: 1954); Peter Pernthaler, Der Schutz der ethnischen Gemeinschaften durch individuelle Rechte, (Vienna-Stuttgart: 1964).

121. See F. Ermacora, "Über den Minderheitenschutz in den Friedensverträgen der Donaustaaten nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg", in Der Donauraum, vol. 11, nos. 1-2, p. 70.

122. Romania recognized the Universal Declaration of Human Rights at the time of its admission to the UN on December 14, 1955. See V. Duculescu, Romania la Organizatia Natiunilor Unite [Romania in the UN Organization], (Bucharest: 1973).

123. Information on the activity of the Subcommission of the UN, in Josef Niset, "La Sous-Commission de la lutte contre les mesures discriminatoires et la protection des minorités des Nations Unies à sa vingtième session Genève, 3 au 21 septembre 1973", in Revue des droits de l'homme -- Human Rights Journal, Paris vol. VI, no. 3-4/1973. See also Felix Ermacora, Der Minderheitenschutz in der Arbeit der Vereinten Nationen, (Vienna -- Stuttgart: 1974).

124. See Decree-Law No. 575/1944 of November 13, in Monitorul Oficial, part I, no. 264/1944, November 14.

125. See Decree-Law No. 85/1945, Monitorul Oficial, part I, no. 30/1945, February 7, 1945, p. 819 et seq.

126. Decree-Law No. 630/1945 of August 3, 1945. Monitorul Oficial, I, no. 176/1945.

127. See Decree-Law No. 629/1945 of August 3, in Monitorul Oficial, part I, no. 176/1945, August 6, p. 6794. The concept of "coinhabiting nationalities" ("nationalitati conlocuitoare") is also part of the people's democratic Constitution of 1948.

128. Decree-Law No. 187/1945, Monitorul Oficial, I, no. 68 II/1945, March 23, 1945. Edict No. 4/1945 of April 11, 1945, relates to the execution of the law, Monitorul Oficial, no. 85/1945, April 12, 1945.

129. Sándor Kelemen, Az erdélyi helyzet, p. 20. Contains only Hungarian data; for the German data, see Dokumentation der Vertreibung der Deutschen, op. cit., pp. 85 E-91 E.

130. See Comunicari Statistice [Statistical Publications], Bucharest, 1947, no. 17, table 6.

131. For more detail, see Hans Bergel, Die Sachsen in Siebenbürgen nach dreissig Jahren Kommunismus, (Innsbruck: 1976), p. 7. Further literature on the 1945 agrarian reform: Costin Murgescu, Reforma agrara din 1945 [The Agrarian Reform of 1945], (Bucharest: 1956), p. 270; Dokumentation der Vertreibung der Deutschen, pp. 85 E-91 E; E. Wagner, Quellen zur Geschichte, op. cit., pp. 343-351.

132. See Decree-Law No. 91/1945, April 2, 1945.

133. Law No. 261. Monitorul Oficial, I, no. 78, April 4, 1945.

134. Decree No. 12 of August 13, 1945 in Monitorul Oficial, I, no. 182, August 13, 1945.

135. The term "Romanian Communist Party" has come into use again since the Ninth Party Congress (1965). The Romanian Communist Party was established in 1921 with the name "Communist Party in Romania" and was outlawed three years later.

136. Monitorul Oficial, I, no. 87/1948, April 13, 1948. The English text of the Constitution can be found in Constitutions of Nations, ed. A.J. Peaslee, vol. III, (Concord: 1950), p. 37 et seq.

137. Decree No. 119/1948 in Monitorul Oficial, I, no. 133 II/1948, June 11, 1948, p. 5047 et seq.

138. S. Fischer-Galati, ed., Romania, p. 107.

139. For more detail, see the chapter "National-Minority Education in Romania".

140. The predecessor of the Union of Working Youth was the Union of Communist Youth (UTC, Uniunea Tineretului Comunist), which was founded in 1922. At present, it has approximately 2.3 million members. 70 percent of the 9-14 age group, approximately 1.3 million young people, belong to the Pioneers.

141. The term is derived from the name of Michael Roller, author of the History of the Romanian People's Republic (Bucharest: 1948 and 1952), Probleme de istorie [Problems of History], (Bucharest: 1951) and Scrieri istorice si social-politice [Historical and Sociopolitical Writings], (Bucharest: 1957). On the "Roller period," see Michael Rura, Reinterpretation of History as a Method of Furthering Communism in Rumania, (Washington, Georgetown: 1961).

142. Law No. 5/1950. Buletinul Oficial [Official Bulletin], no. 77, September 8, 1950. Buletinul Oficial is the successor to the Monitorul Oficial; the name was introduced after 1949.

143. The first law relating to the establishment and organization of people's councils (Sfaturi populare) was issued on January 15, 1949, while the final decree, 259/1950, was issued on December 28, 1950. Buletinul Oficial, no. 14/1950.

144. The old police and gendarme units were abolished on January 23, 1949, and the Militia was established. However, the organization of the police had already begun in 1945; in 1955 the Securitate (Security Police) was formed.

145. Buletinul Oficial, no. 1/1952. On the text of the Constitution, see A.J. Peaslee, ed., "Constitution of the Romanian People's Republic" in Constitutions of Nations, (The Hague: 1965), second edition, vol. III, p. 251

146. Article 18. Arad, Bacau, Barlad, Bucuresti, Constanta, Craiova, Galati, Hunedoara, Iasi, Cluj, Baia Mare, Oradea, Pitesti, Ploiesti, Suceava, Stalin, Timisoara, and the Hungarian Autonomous Region.

147. On the power struggles of the period, the following works provide excellent and detailed information: Ghita Ionescu, Communism in Rumania 1944-1962, (London: 1964); Stephen Fischer-Galati, ed., Romania, (New York: 1956); Alexandre Cretzianu, Captive Rumania, (New York: 1956).

148. The Soviet Union placed primarily non-Romanian elements at the head of the government: Ana Pauker was a Romanian-speaking Soviet citizen of Jewish origin, László Luca was Hungarian, Pintilie Bodnarenko and Emil Bodnaras (Botnarcsjuk) were Soviet citizens of Ukrainian origin; Sándor Mogyorós, who was of Hungarian origin, became an assimilated Romanian and assumed the name Moghioros. Ana Pauker and Teohari Georgescu were sentenced to lengthy prison terms in 1952. László Luca was executed. It is characteristic that until 1952 his name appeared as Luca (the Romanian spelling) in the Romanian press but thereafter as Luka, emphasizing his Hungarian origins.

149. The construction of the Danube-Black Sea Canal began in 1949, using almost exclusively political prisoners. (Cf., Cretzianu, Captive Rumania, pp. 37, 40, 78.) According to estimates, the canal project employed 40,000 prisoners and an additional 40,000 so-called "volunteers" (Cf., Ionescu, Communism in Rumania, pp. 199-200). A large proportion of the prisoners came from the middle class, particularly from among the intellectuals. In many cases, they were sent there without being sentenced and were often not released even after completing their term. (Cf. N.G. Shuster, Religion hinter dem Eisernen Vorhang, (Würzburg: 1954), p. 251.) The construction of the canal was abandoned in 1954.

150. The 1952 Constitution changed the term "coinhabiting nationalities" to "national minorities"; later "coinhabiting nationalities" was reintroduced.

151. Scanteia, June 22, 1948.

152. Quoted in Gh. Ionescu, Communism in Rumania, p. 182.

153. The quote is from Dokumentation der Vertreibung der Deutschen aus Ost-Mitteleuropa, p. 101 E, note 6.

154. See Dokumentation..., p. 101 E.

155. Relating the Romanianization between 1944 and 1958, see R.W. Burks, Die Dynamik des Kommunismus in Osteuropa, German edition, (Hannover: 1969), p. 240.

156. Evidence of Violation of Peace Treaty, Guarantees of Human Rights, (Washington, D.C.: 1951). See also A. Cretzianu, Captive Rumania, p. 36.

157. At that time, four counties belonged to the Székler region: Trei Scaune/Háromszék, Ciuc/Csík, Odorhei/Udvarhely and Mures-Turda/Maros-Torda.

158. Scanteia, September 26, 1952.

159. According to the 1956 census, the Hungarian Autonomous Region had 731,387 inhabitants, of which 77.3 percent (565,510) were Hungarian, 20.1 percent (146,830) were Romanian, 0.4 percent were German, 0.4 percent were Jewish, 1.5 percent were Gypsy, and 0.3 were other nationality. The population other than Hungarian or Romanian numbered altogether 19,047. Recensamantul Populatiei din 21 februarie 1956. Rezultate generale, Bucuresti, Directia Centrala de Statistica, 1959 [The Census of February 21, 1956, General Results. Bucharest. Central Statistical Directorate, 1959], pp. 558-559, and Anuarul Statistic al R.P.R. 1961, p. 74.
The districts of Sepsi and Kézdi in Trei Scaune/Háromszék County, with Hungarian populations of 85.3 percent and 90.2 percent respectively, were removed from the region and added to Brasov Region (Regiunea Brasov), which had a Romanian majority. At the same time Tirnaveni (Dicsöszentmárton), which had belonged to Brasov Region, and Ludus (Marosludas) and Sarmas (Sármás), which had belonged to the Cluj Region, with Hungarian populations of only 25.6, 22.1, and 13.7 percent respectively, were added to the Magyar Autonomous Region.

160. Decree No. 2/1968.

161. Marshal Tito, whose real name was Josip Broz, party and state chief of Yugoslavia, was expelled from Cominform in June 1948 because of his refusal to recognize Soviet hegemony over Yugoslavia.

162. The barren area between the Danube and Ialomita Rivers, southeast of Bucharest.

163. For more detailed information see: Dokumentation der Vertreibung der Deutschen aus Ost-Mitteleuropa, p. 112 E.

164. Decree of February 9, 1952, published in Buletinul Oficial, no. 9/1952, February 16, 1952.

165. See Dokumentation . . ., p. 113 E.

166. As a result of a decree issued in the summer of 1956, some of the Romanian citizens of Hungarian or German origin were given back their confiscated real estate. (Cf., Dokumentation . . ., p. 117 E.)

167. Gh. Gheorghiu-Dej, "A népi demokratikus rendszer további erösödése a Románia Népköztársaságban" [The Further Strengthening of the System of People's Democracy in the Romanian People's Republic], in Igazság [Justice; Hungarian-language publication, Cluj], 1953,1, p. 29.

Elemér Illyés : National Minorities in Romania